TN History Culture Part 1 Revision Test in English

The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such as in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.

The Classical Sangam corpus consists of Tholkappiyam, the eight anthologies (Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest extant Tamil grammatical text dealing not only with poetry but also the society and culture of the times. The Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) and the five epics belong to post-Sangam times (fourth to sixth century CE) and describe a different social and cultural set-up.

Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These poems, varying in length from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by panar, the wandering bards and pulavar, the poets.

Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include eighteen texts, which mostly deal with ethics and moral codes. The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.

Pattinappalai, composed by the poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, offers elaborate descriptions of the bustling trading activity here during the rule of Karikalan.

The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their control. The Patitrupathu speaks of eight Chera kings, their territory and fame. The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings of three generations.

The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription mentions a Pandya king by name Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE. Madurai-kanchi refers to Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi and another Nedunchezhiyan, victor of Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Pandya kings.

The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam.

The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas around the third quarters of sixth century CE.

A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there is no mention about their family or dynasty name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.

A closer look at the Sangam literature reveals that social differentiation is evident in the Marutham region.

Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu. They were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas.

Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and gathering. Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for cultivation and hence people took to cattle lifting and robbery. Mullai: forested region: pastoralism combined with shifting cultivation.

Athiyamans, mentioned as Satiyaputra in the Ashoka inscriptions, became weak and did not attain the status of kings like the Chola, Pandya and Chera vendar.

Warfare for territorial expansion was a major theme of Puratthinai. The territorial associations are very clear in the case of the Muvendar, and their important position is corroborated by the Greco-Roman texts from the first century CE.

In the Sangam Age the wars waged by the Vendar were involved in expanding their territorial base by annexing the enemy’s territories. Endemic warfare presumably created conditions for social disparities. War captives serving in some cult centres are mentioned. Some references to slaves are also found there. Women were actively engaged in economic production and there were a significant number of women poets in the Sangam Age.

Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths and Yavana carpenters working in cooperation with Tamil craftsmen.

Hero stones are memorials erected for those who lost their lives in the battles and in cattle raids. As cattle were considered an important source of wealth, raiding cattle owned by adjoining tribes and clans was common practice in a pastoral society. One of the inscriptions from Pulimankombai reads “Kudalur Akol pedu tiyan antavan kal” It means "The stone of Tiyan Antavan who was killed in a cattle raid at the village of Kudalur".

Arikkamedu, near Puducherry, is a Sangam Age port, excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). British archaeologist, Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler, French Archaeologist, J.M. Casal, and Indian archaeologists, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, excavated this site. They found evidence of a planned town, warehouse, streets, tanks and ring wells.

Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with the Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu. Evidence of iron, stone bead and shell work, as well as megalithic burials have been discovered at this site. More than 300 pottery inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have also been found.

The Indian Treasure Trove Act (1878), the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972), the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (1958) are legislation related to the preservation of archaeological remains in India.

The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, punch-marked coins, and Roman coins form another important source of evidence from the Sangam Age. Punch-marked coins have been found at Kodumanal and Bodinayakkanur. Roman coins are concentrated in the Coimbatore region, and are found at Azhagankulam, Karur, and Madurai. They were used as bullion for their metal value and as ornaments.

Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins used in India. They are mostly made of silver and have numerous symbols punched on them. Hence, they are known as punch-marked coins.

Arthasastra, the classic work on economy and statecraft authored by Chanakya during the Mauryan period, refers to Pandya kavataka. It may mean the pearl and shells from the Pandyan country.

The concept of Thinai is presented in the Tamil Grammar work of Tholkappiyam and this concept is essential to understand the classical Tamil poems. Thinai is a poetic theme, which means a class or category and refers to a habitat or eco-zone with specific physiographical characteristics.

The Silappathikaram speaks about Cheran Senguttuvan, who built a temple for Kannagi, the protagonist of the epic. The bow and arrow is the symbol of the Cheras. Legend has it that Ilango who composed the Silappathikaram, was the brother of Cheran Senguttuvan.

The presence of glass beads at the sites reveals that people of the Sangam Age knew how to make glass beads. Glass material (silica) was melted in a furnace and drawn into long tubes which were then cut into small beads. Glass beads came in various shapes and colour. Arikkamedu and Kudikkadu, near Cuddalore show evidence of glass beads industry. It is possible that people who could not afford precious stones used glass beads instead.

A bronze tiger with carnelian stones, Kodumanal. A bronze vessel from a megalithic burial Auroville, Puducherry. Glass beads from Porunthal excavations. A spindle whorl, Pattanam. Textile and spindle whorls from Kodumanal.

Akanaanuru poem 149 describes the trading at the port of Muciri as follows: “the well-crafted ships of the Yavana came with gold returned with pepper at the wealthy port of Muciri”

Pattanam is located near North Paravur in Vadakkekara village of Ernakulam district of Kerala. Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with the Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu. Keezhadi is located near Silaimaan east of Madurai, on the highway to Rameswaram.

Varieties of rice such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white rice), and aivananel (a type of rice) are mentioned in the literature. Rice grains were found in burial urns at excavations in Adichanallur and Porunthal. People in the forest adopted punam or shifting cultivation.

For instance, evidence of iron smelting has been found in Kodumanal and Guttur. Sangam literature speaks of blacksmiths, and their tools and activities. Iron implements were required for agriculture and warfare (swords, daggers, and spears).

A stone with the name “Perumpatankal” has been found at Khuan Luk Pat, Th ailand. Southeast Asia was known as Suvarna Bhumi in Tamil literature. Th is stone was used by a person called Perumpattan, probably a goldsmith. It was a touchstone used to test the purity of gold.

The Chola emblem was the tiger and they issued square copper coins with images of a tiger on the obverse, elephant and the sacred symbols on the reverse.

Pattinappaalai is a long poem about Kaveripoompattinam composed by the poet Kadiyalur Uruthirankannanar. Silappathikaram describes the trading activities at Kaveripoompattinam. Karikalan is notable among the Chola kings and is credited with bringing forestlands under the plough and developing irrigation facilities by effectively utilising the water from the river Kaveri.

An Indian jar with 7.5 kg of pepper, teak wood, a potsherd with Tamil-Brahmi inscription and Indian pottery have been discovered at Berenike, a port on the Red Sea coast of Egypt.

In sangam literature, the love between men and women were kept at higher place. This tholkappiyum verse speaks about the 10 matching things between two souls which are in deep love.

Sangam literature says that helping others is a great dhamma. This kali-thogai verse says that we should consider others sorrow as ours and we should help them.

Sangam literature speaks that being true(வாய்மை) is great dhamma. The above pathitrupathu verse states that one should be loyal in his words.

The above verse states that we should act in way with great hospitality to the visitors to our house that they should never think bad about us.

Explanation “Nalathu seithal aatrir ayinum Aalathu seithu ombumin” (‘நல்லது செய்தல் ஆற்றீர் ஆயினும் அல்லது செய்தல் ஓம்புமின்’) The above purananuru verse speaks about the thing that one should live for other and he should thing everyone as his own kids and kin.

The above purananooru verse speaks about the universal friendship. It states that I am a world citizen, everyone in the world is my brother, sister and relations

Nalaadiyar is the literature which has been places after or equal to that of thirukural. There are some sayings such as “aalum velum palku ooruthi naalum rendum solukurithi”( ‘நாலும் இரண்டும் சொல்லுக்குறுதி’).

The Naaladiyar has the same thoughts as of the thirukural. It was written by may Jain saints (சமண முனிவர்). It speaks about Monastic life, hating the happiness of the world, being a vegetarian, not killing any lives.

The salt which made from waste land is treated equal to that of the rice which is harvested from a good land. Everyone is compared to this, as that everyone should be treated equally no one should be avoided based upon their birth.

The Grammatical literature pioneered by “Tholkappiyam” is Nannol which was written by Bavanathi munivar.

The relation between the teacher and student should be as to cool in a fire (நெருப்பில் குளிர் காய்வதுபோல ஆசிரியர் மாணாக்கர் உறவு என்பது, அகலாமலும் அணுகாமலும் இருத்தல் வேண்டும்.).

The child born to kovalan and madhavi was named as Manimegalai. Kovalan choose this name to thank a god (Manimegala) which saved some of his ancestor during his way for trade through sea.

The first literature that rose for hospitality was sevaga sinthamani. This contains the ideas of Jainism.

The braveness of Tamil kings is said greatly in Porananooru. He leads the fleet in the war saves his kingdom for the enemies.

For the first time, an ancient city which is old about 5000 years old was found in 1921. The city of Harappa was found between Ravi and Sutlej rivers in montkomari district in old Punjab which is currently in Pakistan.

Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh Larcakana district, Pakistan. Its height is about 70 feet.

The sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were excavated by Sir John Shore. He compared the Indus valley civilization to Dravidian culture. He had stated that this civilization existed before the invasion of the Aryans.

The city names that are used currently in Tamil Nadu is also found in Indus valley civilization cities. Some of the cities are aarani, korkai, mailam, maanur, nagal, thondi, kandigai.

The streets are observed to have a grid pattern. They were straight running from north to south and east to west and intersected each other at right angles. The roads were wide with rounded corners. Houses were built on both sides of the street. The houses were either one or two storeys.

The great bath was lined with bricks, coated with plaster and made water-tight using layers of natural bitumen.

The great thing to know about Indus valley is that it had Agriculture. The people of this era had idea of saving the food grains for future. The great granary in the Harappa is an example of this. Its length is about 165 feet and breadth is about 135 feet.

The Assembly Hall was another huge public building at Mohenjo-Daro. It was a multi-pillared hall (20 pillars in 4 rows to support the roof).

A naval dockyard has been discovered in Lothal in Gujarat. It shows the maritime activities of the Indus people. Lothal is situated on the banks of a tributary of Sabarmati river in Gujarat.

During Indus valley civilization the women were kept in same status as that of men. They had used make-up articles. A mirror has been found in this place which is made up of bronze was used by them.

The Indus valley people followed three types of burying the dead, 1. Burying the entire body. 2. The remains of the burnt body and the articles used by them are buried near the house itself. 3. The dead body is placed outside the city as food for birds and animals. The bones and the articles used by them are stored in a pottery and finally buried.

The ancient Tamil people had practice of burying the dead along with food items liked by the dead. This type of pottery are found in Aathirapakam, Aarikimedu, Aathichanalur, thirukampuliyur, thamirabarani.

The ornaments were made of gold, silver, ivory, shell, copper, terracotta and precious stones. Iron was unknown to people of Indus.

Indus people used the red quartz stone called Carnelian to design jewellery. They adorned themselves with necklaces, armlets, bangles, finger rings, ear studs and anklets.

Pottery was practiced using the potter’s wheel. It was well fired. Potteries were red in colour with beautiful designs in black.

By 1900 BCE, the Harappan culture had started declining. It is assumed that the civilisation met with repeated floods, ecological changes, invasions, natural calamity, climatic changes, deforestation, an epidemic.

A granary with walls made of mud bricks, which are still in a good condition, has been discovered in Rakhigarhi, a village in Haryana, belonging to Mature Harappan Phase.

The stamps found in Indus valley civilization has signs of sun and snake. From this it assumed that the people had worshipped the fire and sun.

Indus valley people used “chithira letters” (சித்திர எழுத்துகள்’). They usually write one line from left to right and another line from right to left.

The people of Indus valley had a habit of worshipping the trees is evident from the stamps that were found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Banyan tree was one which is placed at first.

In the above verse of tholkapiyur has mentioned the gods of four lands except that of palai. But, the people of palai (desert) worshipped the kottravai as god.

The mountain related lands are called as kurinji land. The god worshipped by the people of kurinji land is Murugan (seiyon, velan).

The grand festival celebrated in the marutham land is Indira festival. It is celebrated for pray the god to save the people from famine and diseases. The literature such as silapathigaram and manimegalai has some information about this festival.

The sea and sea related lands are called as neithal. Varunan is the god belonging to this land. The festivals such as munerr festival, naavai festival are celebrated in this land. This information is provided in 36th verse of Purananooru.

The archive head of silapathigaram Kanagai born in chola land, she showed her braveness in Pandiya land and in the land of chera she was devoted as divine goddess.

In the month of margazhi the women will have paavai feast. During this time, they worship the god by singing the verses from thirupavai written by Aandal and thiruvembavai written by manikavasgar.

In the month of sithirai the saivam and vainavam group jointly celebrate the festival for the marriage of meenachi sundrarnar in Madurai.

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) excavated an ancient town dating to Sangam Age in Keezhadi village at Tirupathur taluk. Excavations have produced evidence for brick buildings, and well laid – out drainage system.

In 2017, ASI sent two samples of these for Radio carbon dating to Beta Analytic, Florida, USA. They dated samples as 200 BC (BCE). The Roman artefacts found at the site add to the evidence of ancient Indo -Roman trade relations.

A pot of rice from Porunthal site proves that rice was people’s staple food. They had the practice of rice cultivation in Tamil Nadu.

Adichanallur - Thoothukudi District, Keezhadi – Sivagangai District, Porunthal – Dindigul District, Paiyampalli – Vellore District, Kodumanal – Erode District.

Dolmens are Megalithic tombs made of two or more upright stones with a single stone lying across the burial site. Megalithic Dolmens have been found in Veeraraghavapuram village, Kanchipuram district, Kummalamaruthupatti, Dindigul district, and in Narasingampatti, Madurai district.

The following are some temples in Tamil Nadu which has high Vimanas Tanjore big temple- 216 feet – Raja Raja cholan-1 Gangai konda cholapurma- 170 feet- Rajendra cholan – 1 Thiripuvanam kambagasvarar temple – 126 feet – kulothunga cholan- 3

The stone above the Tanjore big temple weighs about 80 tons. It has been recognised as world heritage site by The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO.

Trade had flourished between the Tamil country and Rome even when Rome was a republic. Roman coins and artefacts of the period have been excavated at Arikamedu, near Pondicherry, which is said to have been an Indo-Roman trading station.

Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his victory over the combined army of the Chera, the Chola and five Velir chieftains (Thithiyan, Elini, Erumaiyuran, Irungovenman, and Porunan) at Talayalanganam.

The Pandyas ruled from Madurai. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. Korkai is referred to in the Periplus as Kolkoi.

Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, is portrayed as the greatest Chola of the Sangam age. Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of his reign.

Chenguttuvan defeated many chieftains and is said to have ensured the safety of the great port Musiri by putting down piracy.

Chellirumporai issued coins in his name. The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings of three generations.

Imayavaramban Nedun-cheralathan and Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent Chera kings. Nedunchezhiyan is a Pandiyan king.

The above tholkappiyum verse states that everyone should think that those who are suffering like them should be thought and their lives should be made happier.

The novels such as silapathigaram and manimegalai are called as twin novels. Because, manimegalai is novel about a girl manimegalai who was born to the archive head Kovalan and Madhavi.

The silapathigaram speaks about the dance, art and ruling system of the sangam age and then speaks of the trading systems in Madurai, Vanchi, Poogar.

Manimegalai which is one of the twin novels speaks about the communion trust and life standards (மணிமேகலை, சமய அறக் கருத்துகளையும் வாழ்வியல் நெறிகளையும் எடுத்துரைக்கின்றது.)

The copper coins were in circulation during sangam age. They were in square shape.

The coins which were in circulation during Pallava regime had the symbols such as double fish, ship and Nandi.

The paranthaga cholan’s uthiramerur inscriptions clearly explains the administration of Cholas.

The inscriptions of Kanchi temple shows clearly the history of pallava administration and kingdom.

Salt merchants were called Umanars and they travelled in bullock carts along with their family.